The European Union and its member states face growing vulnerabilities due to economic dependencies on China, particularly in health, defence, and energy. As China increasingly employs economic statecraft tactics—using economic tools to exert geopolitical influence—the EU must find ways to safeguard its vital sectors.

The internationalization of the Renminbi (RMB) is a long-term project that has evolved gradually through a series of policy initiatives, infrastructure developments, and external shocks over the past few decades. The research was implemented under the purview of the LeidenAsiaCentre and commissioned by the China Knowledge Network of the Government of the Netherlands. Conclusions and opinions are solely those of the authors.